Most herbs and spices are native either to the sunny Mediterranean region or the hothouse environment of the tropics: in other words ideal regions with plenty of light, heat and atmospheric moisture. These ‘pampering’ conditions cause the plants to produce excess quantities of primary metabolites (substances used to build all the plant organs), as well as secondary metabolites (substances that are not essential to their existence and without which the plants can function quite normally).

Among the latter also belong various aromatic, flavouring or colouring substances which make the spices what they are. These secondary metabolites are very diverse, and often distinguished by a pronounced aroma and flavour as well as important pharmacological properties. That is why many herbs used in cooking are also used in medicine. Typical substances found in herbs are first and foremost essential oils, bitter principles and tannins.

The existence of olives as food is the result of sheer chance combined with a stroke of genius. Present-day olive trees are apparently descended from a wild tree of Greek origin. The first such individual must have been the result of a chance mutation, some time as far back as 3000 B.C., and all the olive trees raised nowadays are its offspring, multiplied by man.

The fresh leaves of the curly variety are used to decorate window displays by butchers and fishmongers. Parsley did not become a culinary herb until the Middle Ages when Charlemagne had it raised in his vegetable gardens, after which it rapidly became an essential part of all vegetable dishes. It reached England in the 16th century and was brought to America by the settlers.

The reason is simple – the fresh fruits are inedible because of their unpleasant bitter flavour. This hitter flavour disappears only after lengthy immersion in water that is changed repeatedly, or after pickling in brine for several months. How and when this treatment was discovered we do not know, nor do we know whether our taste was enriched by chance or by man’s ingenuity.

Even in the smallest garden a wide range of microclimatic conditions exists. These can be used to control the amount of sunlight, water and wind coming into contact with plants, which determines their health. For instance, the way plants are grouped creates a microclimate, since the proximity of one plant may reduce the water, sun and wind received by its neighbour.

Plants need light to achieve growth, through the process of photosynthesis. You can take advantage of the microclimate in various ways to increase the amount of sunlight available to a plant. A slope, for example, may catch more of the sun’s rays than fiat ground and the water of a small pond will reflect light, aiding the growth of nearby plants. However, some plants require less sun and more shade than others and too much solar heat results in excessive water loss.

The sun’s rays are important because provide the source of energy used in the of photosynthesis, shown here for the tom plant. Solar energy, which is assimilated in the green parts of the plant, causes carbon dioxide (taken in from the atmosphere) to be combine into carbon monoxide and oxygen; they them combine with water brought up from the soil to make the starch which the plant needs in order to grow. Oxygen and water vapour are given.

In the Middle Ages the rose was called the ‘flower of flowers’ and from that time dates the recipe for the then popular dish called `Rosee’.

The wild species are native to that land and the number of Chinese varieties is enormous. Even older, by a thousand years, are the inscriptions on a tablet of the Great Pyramid of Cheops, where the radish (surmaia) is listed together with various other vegetables. Either is was introduced from here to China or else the Chinese began cultivating it on their own, independent of the Egyptians. Radish is also mentioned by Dioscorides in connection with its use in medicine.

Syrup prepared by mixing honey and rose petals was prescribed for ‘the weak, ill, phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric’. To this day rose petals are used locally, particularly in the Near East, as a fragrant admixture to foods and beverages.

The red powder may be purchased in shops that specialize in foodstuffs from Lebanon, but it is rarely used in Europe. However, sumach is very important in Arabian cookery, where it is still preferred to lemon.

Putting together all the various elements can be a daunting prospect. Preparing the ground and planting a single plant is straightforward task, but when a large group or even the entire garden is to be planted, the work can seem impossible. however, there are some simple guidelines to follow that can eliminate must of the worry and reduce the effort.

A plant’s hardiness is possibly the most important of the three, and it is judged not just by the plant’s ability to withstand winter cold but also the degree to which it might be damaged by Spring frosts.

Every plant needs to obtain a cocktail of nutrients from the soil. In many cases there are only very small amounts of each nutrient in any given area of soil, and even when the gardener adds extra fertilizer, the plant has to seek out these nutrients from a very large area.

It is essential that the soil is broken up to enable the plant’s roots to pass easily through it. Before planting, therefore, use a garden fork and spade to dig the whole area to a depth of 50ern (20in). although when you do this, you must make sure that the top 25cm (loin) or so of topsoil is always kept on top of the subsoil.

No matter how much careful planning and planting have gone into your garden, it can all be to no avail if the ultimate sizes of the plants have not been considered, and this means the width or spread of the plants, not just their height.

The overall shape and form of every plant must be taken into account. for they will largely determine the final effect of the planting, particularly the way it appears in winter. Height and spread can be used to advantage when you want to provide sentinel effects in borders or to highlight a gateway or path.

The ultimate size and shape of all mature plants can be predicted with sonic. accuracy. These dimensions may be reached within one or two years, as with perennials such as Acanthus spinosus (bear’s breeches), or it may be many years or even generations before a plant reach- * es its maximum height and spread. The beautiful blue cedar, Cedrus libani ssp. atlantica ‘Clauca Pendula’, for example, will take generations to achieve its full height and spread, but it will need the space in which it can grow and develop.

The original form of the herb of lovage is the closely related species L. persicum which grows wild in the hills of southern Iran. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, hence the generic name, derived from the Latin word `ligusticum’ because it grew in abundance in Liguria, a region in northwestern Italy.

However, it is well worth it, for the dried herb from the shop cannot begin to compare with freshly chopped leaves sprinkled on soup or on a potato pancake.

Mattioli was partly right, for the green parts of the plant are slightly poisonous and furthermore he was perhaps guided by a well- founded fear; for the tomato belongs to the nightshade family which includes many highly poisonous species which it resembles.

The rhizomes and roots are used to make commercial soup flavourings. The hollow stem may be cut crosswise into ring-like pieces and candied in the same way as the stem of angelica. All parts of lovage may be used fresh as well as dried, whole, crushed or ground.

Nowadays, marjoram is added to soups, sauces for stewed meats (mainly mutton), stuffings and pkes. Its widest use, however, is in seasoning sausages and salamis. Sometimes it is used together with other fresh herbs in ‘bouquet garni’.

The coastal region in south-west India known as the Malabar Coast was originally called Malichabar. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word `malicha’, meaning pepper and the Arabian word ‘bar’, meaning land, hence pepper land. This relatively narrow coastal belt is the original home of the pepper plant, a climbing shrub growing to a height of 6 m (20 ft).

It is used to this clay as a medicinal plant for its diuretic as well as digestive and expectorant properties. In the Middle Ages it was believed to ward off the plague.

The delicately-scented, mildly pungent leaves with a cucumber-like flavour are used for flavouring. These are eaten as a salad by southern Europeans, the same as the leaves of Burnet (Sanguisorba minor). The young basal leaves are the tastiest if picked before the flower stem begins to grow.

The elderberry is a shrub up to 7 m (23 ft high distributed throughout Europe, western Asia and North America. The white flowers, appearing in late spring – early summer, are followed by black fruits (nigra in Latin means black) – three-seeded berries, or rather drupes.

It is a biennial with large leaves and tall stems up to 1 m (3 ft) high, and a good plant for the herb garden because it is hardy and the leaves may be used throughout the winter when fresh herbs are scarce.

Dried blooms should be stored in air-tight containers. During the growth period it is best to use the fresh flowers. These have a refreshing fragrance and for this reason were at one time used in Europe to improve the flavour of Moselle wines that were not up to par.

In the Middle Ages roast goose called `Suce Madame’ was prepared according to the following recipe: ‘Take sage, parsley, hyssop and savory, quince and pears and stuff the goose, then close the cavity and sew it so the fat cannot escape, and roast it well’. Savory, however, had to be used sparingly for, as Mattioli wrote in his herbal, ‘it incites to wantonness’. Mattioli derived its generic name from the satyrs of antiquity.

Tansy, a perennial herb up to 1 m (3 ft) high, is native to Europe where it is widely distributed. Its Latin name is derived from the Greek word `athanasia’, meaning immortality. It was very popular in the Middle Ages.

Its occurrence in the wild as well as its cultivation is restricted to the inland tropics with their heavy rainfall and rich soil. Over the years growers have bred and developed a great variety of cultivated forms and we no longer know what the original wild trees were like.

Cocoa was important in Mexico among the Aztecs, who, though they did not cultivate the tree, made a chocolate drink from the beans which they flavoured with vanilla and drank hot. Introduced from Mexico to the tropical regions of the Old World in the 17th century, cocoa is nowadays not only a universal delicacy but also a high-caloric and stimulating beverage (it contains caffeine the same as coffee and tea).

It was also believed to banish ‘bad humours’ caused by a lengthy diet of salt fish. The highly aromatic, rather unpleasant-tasting foliage was used to disguise the strong taste of game and mutton and make it more palatable.